Evidence for a Big Brother Effect in Survey-Based Fear of Crime Research
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2014.03.13Keywords:
Fear of crime, sibling effect, big brother effectAbstract
The objective of this study was to determine whether sibling sex and birth order have any influence on individuals' reported fear of crime levels. Based on literature relating to gender, socialization, vicarious fear for spouses and children, and sibling influence, three hypotheses were formed. It was expected that a) having siblings would be protective against fear, b) male fear of crime would increase with the number of younger sisters and c) female fear of crime would decrease with the number of older brothers. A total of 83 McMaster University undergraduate students completed a survey that included demographic questions and a fear of crime index. Results indicated the existence of a "big brother effect", whereby females with older brothers exhibited less fear of crime than other females. There was no statistically significant difference in fear of crime among those with and without siblings and no sex-specific sibling effects on fear of crime in males. Explanations of this result focused on female vulnerability, socialization and the particular influence of older brothers on their sisters' behaviour and characteristics. This study highlights the influence of siblings on fear of crime and provides impetus for future research
References
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Brownlow, Alec. 2005. “A Geography of Men’s Fear.” Geoforum 36(5):581-592.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2004.11.005
Clement, Frank and Michael B. Kleiman. 1977. “Fear of Crime in the United States: A Multivariate Analysis.” Social forces 56(2):519-531.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sf/56.2.519
De Groof, Saskia. 2008. “And My Mama Said: The (Relative) Parental Influence on Fear of Crime Among Adolescent Girls and Boys.” Youth Society 39(3):267-293.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0044118X07301000
Dowler, Kenneth. 2003. “Media Consumption and Public Attitudes Toward Crime and Justice: The Relationship Between Fear of Crime, Punitive Attitudes, and Perceived Police Effectiveness.” Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture 10(2):109-126.
Downey, Douglas B. 2001. “Number of Siblings and Intellectual Development: The Resource Dilution Explanation.” American Psychologist 56(6):497-504.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.6-7.497
Ernst, Cecile and Jules Angst. 1983. Birth Order: Its Influence on Personality. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Falbo, Toni and Denise F. Polit. 1986. “Quantitative Review of the Only Child Literature: Research Evidence and Theory Development.” Psychological Bulletin 100(2):176-189.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.100.2.176
Ferguson, Kristin M. and Charles H. Mindel. 2007. “Modeling Fear of Crime in Dallas Neighborhoods: A Test of Social Capital Theory.” Crime & Delinquency 53(2):322-349.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011128705285039
Ferraro, Kenneth F. and Randy L. Grange. 2007. “The Measurement of Fear of Crime.” Sociological Inquiry 57(1):70-97.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.1987.tb01181.x
Fitzgerald, Robin. 2008. Fear of crime and the neighbourhood context in Canadian cities. Ottawa: Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/ pub/85-561-m/85-561-m2008013-eng.htm
Garside, Rula B. and Bonnie Klimes-Dougan. 2002. “Socialization of Discrete Negative Emotions: Gender Differences and Links with Psychological Distress.” Sex Roles 47:115-128.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1021090904785
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01699.x
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10683160802275797
Jenkins, Jennifer M. and Marjorie A. Smith. 1990. “Factors Protecting Children Living in Disharmonious Homes: Maternal Reports.” Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 29(1):60-69.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199001000-00011
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265407502193001
Kornreich, Jennifer L., Kimberly D. Hearn, Giovanna Rodriguez, and Lucia F. O’Sullivan. 2003. “Sibling Influence, Gender Roles, and the Sexual Socialization of Urban Early Adolescent Girls.” The Journal of Sex Research 40(1):101-110.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224490309552170
May, David C., Nicole E. Rader, and Sarah Goodrum. 2010. “A Gendered Assessment of the “Threat of Victimization”: Examining Gender Differences in Fear of Crime, Perceived Risk, Avoidance, and Defensive Behaviours.” Criminal Justice Review 35(2):159-182.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734016809349166
May, David C., Lesa Rae Vartanian, and Keri Virgo. 2002. “The Impact of Parental Attachment and Supervision on Fear of Crime Among Adolescent Males.” Adolescence 37(146): 267-287.
McCrea, Rod, Tung-Kai Shyy, John Western, and Robert Stimson. 2005. “Fear of Crime in Brisbane: Individual, Social and Neighbourhood Factors in Perspective.” Journal of Sociology 41(1):7-27.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1440783305048381
McIntyre, Jennie J. 1967. “Public Attitudes Toward Crime and Law Enforcement.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 374:34-36.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000271626737400104
McMaster University Office of Institutional Research and Analysis. 2011. McMaster University Fact Book 2010-2011. Retrieved from http://www.mcmaster.ca/avpira/documents/factbook/ FactBook20102011.pdf
Mesch, Gustavo S. 2000. “Women’s Fear of Crime: The Role of Fear for the Well-Being of Significant Others.” Violence and Victims 15(3):323-336.
Miller, Joel. 2008. “Impact of Situational Factors on Survey Measured Fear of Crime.” International Journal of Social Research Methodology 11(4):307-325.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13645570701606093
Moore, Mark H. and Robert C. Trojanowicz. 1988. “Policing and the Fear of Crime.” Pp. 1-7 in Perspectives on Policing, Vol. 3. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.
Price, Joseph. 2008. “Parent-Child Quality Time: Does Birth Order Matter?” The Journal of Human Resources 43(1):240-265.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jhr.2008.0023
Rader, Nicole E. 2010. “Until Death Do Us Part? Husband Perceptions and Responses to Fear of Crime.” Deviant Behaviour 31(1):33-59.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01639620902854704
Rader, Nicole E. and Stacy H. Haynes. 2011. “Gendered Fear of Crime Socialization: An Extension of Aker’s Social Learning Theory.” Feminist Criminology 6(4):291-307.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1557085111408278
Renauer, Brian C. 2007. “Reducing Fear of Crime: Citizen, Police, or Governmental Responsibility.” Police Quarterly 10(41):41-62.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1098611106286894
Sandler, Irwin N. 1980. “Social Support Resources, Stress, and Maladjustment of Poor Children.” American Journal of Community Psychology 8(1):41-52.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00892280
Salmi, Satu, Martti Gronroos, and Esko Keskinen. 2004. “The Role of Police Visibility in Fear of Crime in Finland.” Policing: An International Journal of Policing Strategies & Management 27(4):573-591.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13639510410566280
Schachter, Stanley. 1963. “Birth Order, Eminence and Higher Education.” American Sociological Review 28(5):757-768.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2089913
Semmens, Natasha, Jennifer Dillane, and Jason Ditton. 2002. “Preliminary Findings on Seasonality and the Fear of Crime: A Research Note.” British Journal of Criminology 42(4):798-806.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjc/42.4.798
Snedker, Karen A. 2006. “Altruistic and Vicarious Fear of Crime: Fear For Others and Gendered Social Roles.” Sociological Forum 21(2):163-195.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11206-006-9019-1
Steelman, Lala C. 1985. “A Tale of Two Variables: A Review of the Intellectual Consequences of Sibship size and Birth Order.” Review of Educational Research 55(3):353-386.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/00346543055003353
Stoneman, Zolinda and Gene H. Brody. 1986. “Same-Sex and Cross-Sex Siblings: Activity Choices, Roles, Behaviour, and Gender Stereotypes.” Sex Roles 15:495-511.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00288227
Sulloway, Frank J. 1996. Born to Rebel: Birth Order, Family Dynamics, and Creative Lives. New York: Vintage Books.
Sutton, Robbie M. and Stephen Farrall. 2005. “Gender, Socially Desirable Responding and the Fear of Crime: Are Women Really More Anxious about Crime?” British Journal of Criminology 45: 212-224.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azh084
Sutton-Smith, Brian and Benjamin G. Rosenberg. 1970. The Sibling. New York: Hold, Rinehard, & Winston.
Thomas, Charles W. and Samuel C. Foster. 1975. “A Sociological Perspective on Public Support for Capital Punishment.” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 45(4):641-657.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1975.tb01192.x
Vaillancourt, Roxan. 2010. Gender Differences in Police-reported Violent Crime in Canada, 2008. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 85F0033MWE. Ottawa. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics Profile Series, no. 24. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85f0033m/2010024/part-partie1-eng.htm
Volkom, Michael V. 2003. “The Relationships Between Childhood Tomboyism, Siblings’ Activities, and Adult Gender Roles.” Sex Roles 41(11):609-618.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000003131.98867.a1
Warr, Mark. 1992. “Altruistic Fear of Victimization in Households.” Social Science Quarterly 73(4): 723-736.
Warr, Mark and Christopher G. Ellison. 2000. “Rethinking Social Reactions to Crime: Personal and Altruistic Fear in Family Households.” AJS 106(3):551-578.
Warr, Mark. 2000. “Fear of Crime in the United States: Avenues for Research and Policy.” Pp. 451-489 in Criminal Justice 2000, Vol. 4: Measurement and Analysis of Crime and Justice, edited by D. Duffee. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. National Institute of Justice.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00332.x
Brody, Gene H. 2004. “Siblings’ Direct and Indirect Contributions to Child Development.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 13(3):124-126.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00289.x
Bronstein, Phyllis, Maria Briones, Teri Brooks, and Brookes Cowan. 1996. “Gender and Family Factors as Predictors of Late Adolescent Emotional Expressiveness and Adjustment: A Longitudinal Study.” Sex Roles 34: 739-765.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01544314
Brownlow, Alec. 2005. “A Geography of Men’s Fear.” Geoforum 36(5):581-592.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2004.11.005
Clement, Frank and Michael B. Kleiman. 1977. “Fear of Crime in the United States: A Multivariate Analysis.” Social forces 56(2):519-531.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sf/56.2.519
De Groof, Saskia. 2008. “And My Mama Said: The (Relative) Parental Influence on Fear of Crime Among Adolescent Girls and Boys.” Youth Society 39(3):267-293.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0044118X07301000
Dowler, Kenneth. 2003. “Media Consumption and Public Attitudes Toward Crime and Justice: The Relationship Between Fear of Crime, Punitive Attitudes, and Perceived Police Effectiveness.” Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture 10(2):109-126.
Downey, Douglas B. 2001. “Number of Siblings and Intellectual Development: The Resource Dilution Explanation.” American Psychologist 56(6):497-504.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.6-7.497
Ernst, Cecile and Jules Angst. 1983. Birth Order: Its Influence on Personality. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Falbo, Toni and Denise F. Polit. 1986. “Quantitative Review of the Only Child Literature: Research Evidence and Theory Development.” Psychological Bulletin 100(2):176-189.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.100.2.176
Ferguson, Kristin M. and Charles H. Mindel. 2007. “Modeling Fear of Crime in Dallas Neighborhoods: A Test of Social Capital Theory.” Crime & Delinquency 53(2):322-349.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011128705285039
Ferraro, Kenneth F. and Randy L. Grange. 2007. “The Measurement of Fear of Crime.” Sociological Inquiry 57(1):70-97.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.1987.tb01181.x
Fitzgerald, Robin. 2008. Fear of crime and the neighbourhood context in Canadian cities. Ottawa: Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/ pub/85-561-m/85-561-m2008013-eng.htm
Garside, Rula B. and Bonnie Klimes-Dougan. 2002. “Socialization of Discrete Negative Emotions: Gender Differences and Links with Psychological Distress.” Sex Roles 47:115-128.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1021090904785
Gass, Krista, Jennifer Jenkins, and Judy Dunn. 2007. “Are Sibling Relationships Protective? A Longitudinal Study.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48(2):167-175.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01699.x
Gray, Emily, Jonathan Jackson, and Stephan Farrall. 2008. “Researching Everyday Emotions: Towards a Multi-disciplinary Investigation of the Fear of Crime.” Pp. 3-24 in Fear of crime – Punitivity: New Developments in Theory and Research, edited by H. Kury. Bochum, Germany: Universitatsverlag Brockmeyer.
Hollander, Jocelyn A. 2001. “Vulnerability and Dangerousness: The Construction of Gender through Conversation about Violence.” Gender and Society 15(1): 83-109.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/089124301015001005
IBM Corp. 2011. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 20.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.
Jackson, Jonathan. 2006. “Introducing Fear of Crime to Risk Research.” Risk Analysis 26(1):253-264.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2006.00715.x
Jackson, Jonathan. 2009. “A Psychological Perspective on Vulnerability in the Fear of Crime.” Psychology, Crime & Law 15(4):365-390.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10683160802275797
Jenkins, Jennifer M. and Marjorie A. Smith. 1990. “Factors Protecting Children Living in Disharmonious Homes: Maternal Reports.” Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 29(1):60-69.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199001000-00011
Kitzmann, Katherine M., Robert Cohen, and Rebecca L. Lockwood. 2002. “Are Only Children Missing Out? Comparison of the Peer-Related Social Competence of Only Children and Siblings.” Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 19(3):299-316.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265407502193001
Kornreich, Jennifer L., Kimberly D. Hearn, Giovanna Rodriguez, and Lucia F. O’Sullivan. 2003. “Sibling Influence, Gender Roles, and the Sexual Socialization of Urban Early Adolescent Girls.” The Journal of Sex Research 40(1):101-110.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224490309552170
May, David C., Nicole E. Rader, and Sarah Goodrum. 2010. “A Gendered Assessment of the “Threat of Victimization”: Examining Gender Differences in Fear of Crime, Perceived Risk, Avoidance, and Defensive Behaviours.” Criminal Justice Review 35(2):159-182.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734016809349166
May, David C., Lesa Rae Vartanian, and Keri Virgo. 2002. “The Impact of Parental Attachment and Supervision on Fear of Crime Among Adolescent Males.” Adolescence 37(146): 267-287.
McCrea, Rod, Tung-Kai Shyy, John Western, and Robert Stimson. 2005. “Fear of Crime in Brisbane: Individual, Social and Neighbourhood Factors in Perspective.” Journal of Sociology 41(1):7-27.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1440783305048381
McIntyre, Jennie J. 1967. “Public Attitudes Toward Crime and Law Enforcement.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 374:34-36.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000271626737400104
McMaster University Office of Institutional Research and Analysis. 2011. McMaster University Fact Book 2010-2011. Retrieved from http://www.mcmaster.ca/avpira/documents/factbook/ FactBook20102011.pdf
Mesch, Gustavo S. 2000. “Women’s Fear of Crime: The Role of Fear for the Well-Being of Significant Others.” Violence and Victims 15(3):323-336.
Miller, Joel. 2008. “Impact of Situational Factors on Survey Measured Fear of Crime.” International Journal of Social Research Methodology 11(4):307-325.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13645570701606093
Moore, Mark H. and Robert C. Trojanowicz. 1988. “Policing and the Fear of Crime.” Pp. 1-7 in Perspectives on Policing, Vol. 3. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.
Price, Joseph. 2008. “Parent-Child Quality Time: Does Birth Order Matter?” The Journal of Human Resources 43(1):240-265.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jhr.2008.0023
Rader, Nicole E. 2010. “Until Death Do Us Part? Husband Perceptions and Responses to Fear of Crime.” Deviant Behaviour 31(1):33-59.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01639620902854704
Rader, Nicole E. and Stacy H. Haynes. 2011. “Gendered Fear of Crime Socialization: An Extension of Aker’s Social Learning Theory.” Feminist Criminology 6(4):291-307.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1557085111408278
Renauer, Brian C. 2007. “Reducing Fear of Crime: Citizen, Police, or Governmental Responsibility.” Police Quarterly 10(41):41-62.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1098611106286894
Sandler, Irwin N. 1980. “Social Support Resources, Stress, and Maladjustment of Poor Children.” American Journal of Community Psychology 8(1):41-52.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00892280
Salmi, Satu, Martti Gronroos, and Esko Keskinen. 2004. “The Role of Police Visibility in Fear of Crime in Finland.” Policing: An International Journal of Policing Strategies & Management 27(4):573-591.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13639510410566280
Schachter, Stanley. 1963. “Birth Order, Eminence and Higher Education.” American Sociological Review 28(5):757-768.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2089913
Semmens, Natasha, Jennifer Dillane, and Jason Ditton. 2002. “Preliminary Findings on Seasonality and the Fear of Crime: A Research Note.” British Journal of Criminology 42(4):798-806.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjc/42.4.798
Snedker, Karen A. 2006. “Altruistic and Vicarious Fear of Crime: Fear For Others and Gendered Social Roles.” Sociological Forum 21(2):163-195.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11206-006-9019-1
Steelman, Lala C. 1985. “A Tale of Two Variables: A Review of the Intellectual Consequences of Sibship size and Birth Order.” Review of Educational Research 55(3):353-386.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/00346543055003353
Stoneman, Zolinda and Gene H. Brody. 1986. “Same-Sex and Cross-Sex Siblings: Activity Choices, Roles, Behaviour, and Gender Stereotypes.” Sex Roles 15:495-511.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00288227
Sulloway, Frank J. 1996. Born to Rebel: Birth Order, Family Dynamics, and Creative Lives. New York: Vintage Books.
Sutton, Robbie M. and Stephen Farrall. 2005. “Gender, Socially Desirable Responding and the Fear of Crime: Are Women Really More Anxious about Crime?” British Journal of Criminology 45: 212-224.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azh084
Sutton-Smith, Brian and Benjamin G. Rosenberg. 1970. The Sibling. New York: Hold, Rinehard, & Winston.
Thomas, Charles W. and Samuel C. Foster. 1975. “A Sociological Perspective on Public Support for Capital Punishment.” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 45(4):641-657.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1975.tb01192.x
Vaillancourt, Roxan. 2010. Gender Differences in Police-reported Violent Crime in Canada, 2008. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 85F0033MWE. Ottawa. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics Profile Series, no. 24. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85f0033m/2010024/part-partie1-eng.htm
Volkom, Michael V. 2003. “The Relationships Between Childhood Tomboyism, Siblings’ Activities, and Adult Gender Roles.” Sex Roles 41(11):609-618.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000003131.98867.a1
Warr, Mark. 1992. “Altruistic Fear of Victimization in Households.” Social Science Quarterly 73(4): 723-736.
Warr, Mark and Christopher G. Ellison. 2000. “Rethinking Social Reactions to Crime: Personal and Altruistic Fear in Family Households.” AJS 106(3):551-578.
Warr, Mark. 2000. “Fear of Crime in the United States: Avenues for Research and Policy.” Pp. 451-489 in Criminal Justice 2000, Vol. 4: Measurement and Analysis of Crime and Justice, edited by D. Duffee. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. National Institute of Justice.
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Published
2014-05-23
How to Cite
Ashbourne, J. (2014). Evidence for a Big Brother Effect in Survey-Based Fear of Crime Research. International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 3, 146–157. https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2014.03.13
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