Education and Environment Dementia Risk Factors: A Literature Review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.6000/2292-2598.2022.10.01.3Keywords:
Dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, education, environment, risk factors, literature reviewAbstract
Introduction and Background: Dementia has many different causes. Dementia is considered a multifactorial disease; hence the interplay between factors for every case is a complex study. Early and recent reviews had recognised several risk factors associated with dementia in general and with AD specifically. The most studied risk factors include genetics, increasing age, education, environment, and brain injuries. This review aims to give readers access to the latest research on the educational and environmental risk factors of dementia by selecting recent high-quality resources and summarising them in this review.
Methods: The current article is a narrative review of broad literature research.
Results and Discussion: The comprehensive examination of evidence supports the following. First, low education can be considered a relevant risk factor for developing dementia, although the operationalisation of "low education" is still unclear in many studies. The mechanisms of "cognitive reserve" have an important implication in the relationships between education and dementia, and this has been studied with limitations in people with intellectual disorders. Second, air pollution is now considered a dementia risk factor with plenty of evidence concerning PM2.5 but less conclusive evidence regarding single gaseous pollutants because of the “multi-exposure response.”
Conclusion: The considerable body of research points towards an association between these risk factors and dementia prevalence. Low- and middle-income countries will benefit from prioritising child education for all since education is one of the major risk factors for dementia and a wide variety of health disparities.
References
Prince MJ, Wimo A, Guerchet MM, Ali GC, Wu Y-T, Prina M. World Alzheimer Report 2015 - The Global Impact of Dementia: An analysis of prevalence, incidence, cost and trends. 2015 Aug [cited 2021 Jul 18]; Available from: https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/world-alzheimer-report-2015--the-global-impact-of-dementia(ae525fda-1938-4892-8daa-a2222a672254).html
Livingston G, Huntley J, Sommerlad A, Ames D, Ballard C, Banerjee S, et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission. The Lancet 2020; 396(10248): 413-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30367-6
Yiannopoulou KG, Papageorgiou SG. Current and future treatments in Alzheimer Disease: An update. J Cent Nerv Syst Dis 2020; 12: 1179573520907397. https://doi.org/10.1177/1179573520907397
Anstey KJ, Ee N, Eramudugolla R, Jagger C, Peters R. A Systematic Review of Meta-Analyses that Evaluate Risk Factors for Dementia to Evaluate the Quantity, Quality, and Global Representativeness of Evidence. J Alzheimer's Dis 2019; 70(s1): S165-86. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-190181
Livingston G, Sommerlad A, Orgeta V, Costafreda SG, Huntley J, Ames D, et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care. The Lancet 2017; 390(10113): 2673-734. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31363-6
Breijyeh Z, Karaman R. Comprehensive review on Alzheimer's Disease: Causes and treatment. Molecules 2020; 25(24): 5789. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25245789
Henderson AS. The risk factors for Alzheimer's disease: A review and a hypothesis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1988; 78(3): 257-75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1988.tb06336.x
A Armstrong R. Risk factors for Alzheimer's disease. Folia Neuropathol 2019; 57(2): 87-105. https://doi.org/10.5114/fn.2019.85929
Van Cauwenberghe C, Van Broeckhoven C, Sleegers K. The genetic landscape of Alzheimer disease: Clinical implications and perspectives. Genet Med 2016; (5): 421-30. https://doi.org/10.1038/gim.2015.117
Hou Y, Dan X, Babbar M, Wei Y, Hasselbalch SG, Croteau DL, et al. Ageing as a risk factor for neurodegenerative disease. Nat Rev Neurol 2019;15(10): 565-81. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41582-019-0244-7
Jonaitis E, La Rue A, Mueller KD, Koscik RL, Hermann B, Sager MA. Cognitive activities and cognitive performance in middle-aged adults at risk for Alzheimer's disease. Psychol Aging 2013; 28(4): 1004-14. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034838
Wissing MBG, Ulgiati AM, Hobbelen JSM, De Deyn PP, Waninge A, Dekker AD. The neglected puzzle of dementia in people with severe/profound intellectual disabilities: A systematic literature review of observable symptoms. J Appl Res Intellect Disabil 2022; 35(1): 24-45. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12920
Whalley L. Understanding Brain Aging and Dementia [Internet]. Understanding Brain Aging and Dementia. Columbia University Press; 2015 [cited 2021 Jul 18]. https://doi.org/10.7312/whal16382
Mukadam N, Livingston G. Reducing the stigma associated with dementia: approaches and goals. Aging Health 2012; 8(4): 377-86. https://doi.org/10.2217/ahe.12.42
Blazer D. Neurocognitive Disorders in DSM-5. AJP 2013; 170(6): 585-7. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13020179
World Health Organization. International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision. WHO 2016.
Sachdev PS, Blacker D, Blazer DG, Ganguli M, Jeste DV, Paulsen JS, et al. Classifying neurocognitive disorders: The DSM-5 approach. Nat Rev Neurol 2014; 10(11): 634-42. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2014.181
Vieira RT, Caixeta L, Machado S, Silva AC, Nardi AE, Arias-Carrión O, et al. Epidemiology of early-onset dementia: A review of the literature. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health 2013; 9: 88-95. https://doi.org/10.2174/1745017901309010088
Lambert MA, Bickel H, Prince M, Fratiglioni L, Strauss EV, Frydecka D, et al. Estimating the burden of early-onset dementia; systematic review of disease prevalence. Eur J Neurol 2014; 21(4): 563-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.12325
Terry RD, Davies P. Dementia of the Alzheimer type. Annu Rev Neurosci 1980; 3(1): 77-95. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ne.03.030180.000453
Stevens T, Livingston G, Kitchen G, Manela M, Walker Z, Katona C. Islington study of dementia subtypes in the community. Br J Psychiatry 2002; 180(3): 270-6. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.180.3.270
McKenzie K, Metcalfe D, Murray G. A review of measures used in the screening, assessment and diagnosis of dementia in people with an intellectual disability. J Appl Res Intellect Disabil 2018; 31(5): 725-42. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12441
Evans E, Bhardwaj A, Brodaty H, Sachdev P, Draper B, Trollor JN. Dementia in people with intellectual disability: Insights and challenges in epidemiological research with an at-risk population. Int Rev Psychiatry 2013; 25(6): 755-63. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2013.866938
McKhann G, Drachman D, Folstein M, Katzman R, Price D, Stadlan EM. Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's Disease. Neurology 1984; 34(7): 939-44. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.34.7.939
McKhann GM, Knopman DS, Chertkow H, Hyman BT, Jack CR, Kawas CH, et al. The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer's disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's Dement 2011; 7(3): 263-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.005
Sheehan R, Sinai A, Bass N, Blatchford P, Bohnen I, Bonell S, et al. Dementia diagnostic criteria in Down syndrome. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2015; 30(8): 857-63. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4228
Katzman R. Education and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993; 43(1): 13-20. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.43.1_Part_1.13
Mortimer JA, Graves AB. Education and other socioeconomic determinants of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993; 43(8, Suppl 4): S39-S44.
Zhang M, Katzman R, Salmon D, Jin H, Cai G, Wang Z, et al. The prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in Shanghai, China: Impact of age, gender, and education. Ann Neurol 1990; 27(4): 428-37. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410270412
Satizabal CL, Beiser AS, Chouraki V, Chêne G, Dufouil C, Seshadri S. Incidence of Dementia over Three Decades in the Framingham Heart Study. New Eng J Med 2016; 374(6): 523-32. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1504327
Larsson SC, Traylor M, Malik R, Dichgans M, Burgess S, Markus HS. Modifiable pathways in Alzheimer's disease: Mendelian randomisation analysis. BMJ 2017; 359: j5375. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j5375
Kremen WS, Beck A, Elman JA, Gustavson DE, Reynolds CA, Tu XM, et al. Influence of young adult cognitive ability and additional education on later-life cognition. PNAS 2019; 116(6): 2021-6. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1811537116
Valenzuela MJ, Sachdev P. Brain reserve and dementia: a systematic review. Psychol Med 2006; 36(4): 441-54. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291705006264
Caamaño-Isorna F, Corral M, Montes-Martínez A, Takkouche B. Education and Dementia: A Meta-Analytic Study. NED 2006; 26(4): 226-32. https://doi.org/10.1159/000093378
Fratiglioni L, Wang H-X. Brain Reserve Hypothesis in Dementia. J Alzheimer's Dis 2007; 12(1): 11-22. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2007-12103
Sharp ES, Gatz M. The Relationship between Education and Dementia An Updated Systematic Review. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2011; 25(4): 289-304. https://doi.org/10.1097/WAD.0b013e318211c83c
Meng X, D'Arcy C. Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analyses and Qualitative Analyses. PLOS ONE 2012; 7(6): e38268. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038268
Prince M, Acosta D, Ferri CP, Guerra M, Huang Y, Rodriguez JJL, et al. Dementia incidence and mortality in middle-income countries, and associations with indicators of cognitive reserve: A 10/66 Dementia Research Group population-based cohort study. Lancet 2012; 380(9836): 50-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60399-7
Xu W, Tan L, Wang H-F, Tan M-S, Tan L, Li J-Q, et al. Education and Risk of Dementia: Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 53(5): 3113-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-015-9211-5
Maccora J, Peters R, Anstey KJ. What does (low) education mean in terms of dementia risk? A systematic review and meta-analysis highlighting inconsistency in measuring and operationalising education. SSM Popul Health 2020; 12: 100654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100654
Then FS, Luck T, Angermeyer MC, Riedel-Heller SG. Education as protector against dementia, but what exactly do we mean by education? Age Ageing 2016; 45(4): 523-8. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afw049
Foverskov E, Glymour MM, Mortensen EL, Osler M, Okholm GT, Lund R. Education and adolescent cognitive ability as predictors of dementia in a cohort of Danish men. PLoS One 2020; 15(8): e0235781. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235781
Stern Y, Alexander GE, Prohovnik I, Mayeux R. Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1992; 32: 371-5. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410320311
Stern Y. Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease. Lancet Neurol 2012; 11(11): 1006-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70191-6
SantaCruz KS, Sonnen JA, Pezhouh MK, Desrosiers MF, Nelson PT, Tyas SL. Alzheimer Disease Pathology in Subjects Without Dementia in 2 Studies of Aging: The Nun Study and the Adult Changes in Thought Study. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2011; 70(10): 832-40. https://doi.org/10.1097/NEN.0b013e31822e8ae9
Strydom A, Hassiotis A, King M, Livingston G. The relationship of dementia prevalence in older adults with intellectual disability (ID) to age and severity of ID. Psychol Med 2009; 39(1): 13-21. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291708003334
Amieva H, Mokri H, Le Goff M, Meillon C, Jacqmin-Gadda H, Foubert-Samier A, et al. Compensatory mechanisms in higher-educated subjects with Alzheimer’s disease: a study of 20 years of cognitive decline. Brain 2014; 137(4): 1167-75. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awu035
Sanders AE, Hall CB, Katz MJ, Lipton RB. Non-Native Language Use and Risk of Incident Dementia in the Elderly. J of Alzheimer’s Disease 2012; 29(1): 99-108. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2011-111631
Beyer L, Meyer-Wilmes J, Schönecker S, Schnabel J, Sauerbeck J, Scheifele M, et al. Cognitive reserve hypothesis in frontotemporal dementia: A FDG-PET study. Neuroimage Clin 2021; 29: 102535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102535
Dickey JH. Selected topics related to occupational exposures Part VII. Air pollution: Overview of sources and health effects. Disease-a-Month 2000; 46(9): 566-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-5029(00)90024-5
Lewtas J. Air pollution combustion emissions: Characterisation of causative agents and mechanisms associated with cancer, reproductive, and cardiovascular effects. Mutat Res/Rev Mutat Res 2007; 636(1): 95-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrrev.2007.08.003
Wu Y-C, Lin Y-C, Yu H-L, Chen J-H, Chen T-F, Sun Y, et al. Association between air pollutants and dementia risk in the elderly. Alzheimer’s & Dementia: Diagnosis, Assess Dis Monit 2015; 1(2): 220-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dadm.2014.11.015
Jung C-R, Lin Y-T, Hwang B-F. Ozone, Particulate Matter, and Newly Diagnosed Alzheimer’s Disease: A Population-Based Cohort Study in Taiwan. J Alzheimer’s Dis 2015; 44(2): 573-84. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-140855
Fu P, Yung KKL. Air Pollution and Alzheimer’s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Alzheimers Dis 2020; 77(2): 701-14. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-200483
Guxens M, Sunyer J. A review of epidemiological studies on neuropsychological effects of air pollution. Swiss Medical Weekly [Internet]. 2012 Jan 1 [cited 2021 Sep 12];(1). Available from: https://smw.ch/article/doi/smw.2012.13322
Chang K-H, Chang M-Y, Muo C-H, Wu T-N, Chen C-Y, Kao C-H. Increased Risk of Dementia in Patients Exposed to Nitrogen Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide: A Population-Based Retrospective Cohort Study. Plos One 2014; 9(8): e103078. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103078
Weuve J, Puett RC, Schwartz J, Yanosky JD, Laden F, Grodstein F. Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution and Cognitive Decline in Older Women. Arch Inter Med 2012; 172(3): 219-27. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2011.683
Ranft U, Schikowski T, Sugiri D, Krutmann J, Krämer U. Long-term exposure to traffic-related particulate matter impairs cognitive function in the elderly. Environ Res 2009; 109(8): 1004-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2009.08.003
Turin TC, Kita Y, Rumana N, Nakamura Y, Ueda K, Takashima N, et al. Ambient Air Pollutants and Acute Case-Fatality of Cerebro-Cardiovascular Events: Takashima Stroke and AMI Registry, Japan (1988-2004). CED 2012; 34(2): 130-9. https://doi.org/10.1159/000339680
Kokmen E, Whisnant JP, O’Fallon WM, Chu C-P, Beard CM. Dementia after ischemic stroke: A population-based study in Rochester, Minnesota (1960-1984). Neurology 1996; 46(1): 154-9. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.46.1.154
Peters R, Ee N, Peters J, Booth A, Mudway I, Anstey KJ. Air Pollution and Dementia: A Systematic Review. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 70(s1): S145-63. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-180631
Chen H, Kwong JC, Copes R, Tu K, Villeneuve PJ, van Donkelaar A, et al. Living near major roads and the incidence of dementia, Parkinson’s disease, and multiple sclerosis: a population-based cohort study. The Lancet 2017; 389(10070): 718-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)32399-6
Power MC, Weisskopf MG, Alexeeff SE, Coull BA, Spiro AI, Schwartz J. Exposure to Black Carbon and Cognitive Function in a Cohort of Older Men. Epidemiology 2011; 22(1): S203. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ede.0000392306.56000.80
Paul KC, Haan M, Mayeda ER, Ritz BR. Ambient Air Pollution, Noise, and Late-Life Cognitive Decline and Dementia Risk. Annu Rev Public Health 2019; 40(1): 203-20. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-044058
Carey IM, Anderson HR, Atkinson RW, Beevers SD, Cook DG, Strachan DP, et al. Are noise and air pollution-related to the incidence of dementia? A cohort study in London, England. BMJ Open 2018; 8(9): e022404. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022404
Oudin A. Short review: Air pollution, noise and lack of greenness as risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease- epidemiologic and experimental evidence. Neurochem Int 2020; 134: 104646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2019.104646
Yuchi W, Sbihi H, Davies H, Tamburic L, Brauer M. Road proximity, air pollution, noise, green space and neurologic disease incidence: a population-based cohort study. Environ Health 2020; 19(1): 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-020-0565-4
Tsai T-L, Lin Y-T, Hwang B-F, Nakayama SF, Tsai C-H, Sun X-L, et al. Fine particulate matter is a potential determinant of Alzheimer’s disease: A systemic review and meta-analysis. Environ Res 2019; 177: 108638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.108638
Power MC, Adar SD, Yanosky JD, Weuve J. Exposure to air pollution as a potential contributor to cognitive function, cognitive decline, brain imaging, and dementia: A systematic review of epidemiologic research. NeuroToxicology 2016; 56: 235-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2016.06.004
Killin LOJ, Starr JM, Shiue IJ, Russ TC. Environmental risk factors for dementia: a systematic review. BMC Geriatr 2016; 16(1): 175. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-016-0342-y
Ru M, Brauer M, Lamarque J-F, Shindell D. Exploration of the Global Burden of Dementia Attributable to PM2.5: What Do We Know Based on Current Evidence? Geohealth 2021; 5(5): e2020GH000356. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GH000356
Bakulski KM, Seo YA, Hickman RC, Brandt D, Vadari HS, Hu H, et al. Heavy Metals Exposure and Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Dementias. J Alzheimers Dis. 2020;76(4):1215-42. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-200282
Emard JF, Andre P, Thouez J-P, Mathieu J, Boily C, Beaudry M, et al. Geographical distribution of Alzheimer’s disease cases at birth and the geochemical profile of Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean/Québec, Canada (image project). Water Air Soil Pollut 1994; 72(1): 251-64. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01257128
Colomina MT, Peris-Sampedro F. Aluminum and Alzheimer’s Disease. Adv Neurobiol 2017; 18: 183-97. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60189-2_9
McLachlan DR. Aluminum and Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 1986; 7(6): 525-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/0197-4580(86)90102-8
Dartigues JF, Gagnon M, Michel P, Letenneur L, Commenges D, Barberger-Gateau P, et al. The Paquid research program on the epidemiology of dementia. Methods and initial results. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1991; 147(3): 225-30.
Rondeau V, Jacqmin-Gadda H, Commenges D, Helmer C, Dartigues J-F. Aluminum and silica in drinking water and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease or cognitive decline: findings from 15-year follow-up of the PAQUID cohort. Am J Epidemiol 2009; 169(4): 489-96. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn348
Bagepally BS, Balachandar R, Kalahasthi R, Tripathi R, Haridoss M. Association between aluminium exposure and cognitive functions: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Chemosphere 2021; 268: 128831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128831
Zhang T, He F, Lin S, Wang X, Li F, Zhai Y, et al. Does aluminum exposure affect cognitive function? a comparative cross-sectional study. PLoS One 2021; 16(2): e0246560. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246560
Huat TJ, Camats-Perna J, Newcombe EA, Valmas N, Kitazawa M, Medeiros R. Metal Toxicity Links to Alzheimer’s Disease and Neuroinflammation. J Mol Biol 2019; 431(9): 1843-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2019.01.018
Andrews SJ, Fulton-Howard B, O’Reilly P, Marcora E, Goate AM, collaborators of the Alzheimer’s Disease Genetics Consortium. Causal Associations Between Modifiable Risk Factors and the Alzheimer’s Phenome. Ann Neurol 2021; 89(1): 54-65. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.25918
Matthews FE, Arthur A, Barnes LE, Bond J, Jagger C, Robinson L, et al. A two-decade comparison of prevalence of dementia in individuals aged 65 years and older from three geographical areas of England: results of the Cognitive Function and Ageing Study I and II. The Lancet 2013; 382(9902): 1405-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61570-6
Qiu C, Strauss E von, Bäckman L, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L. Twenty-year changes in dementia occurrence suggest decreasing incidence in central Stockholm, Sweden. Neurology 2013; 80(20): 1888-94. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318292a2f9
Langa KM, Larson EB, Crimmins EM, Faul JD, Levine DA, Kabeto MU, et al. A Comparison of the Prevalence of Dementia in the United States in 2000 and 2012. JAMA Inter Med 2017; 177(1): 51-8. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.6807
Reed BR, Mungas D, Farias ST, Harvey D, Beckett L, Widaman K, et al. Measuring cognitive reserve based on the decomposition of episodic memory variance. Brain 2010; 133(8): 2196-209. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awq154
Serra L, Bruschini M, Di Domenico C, Gabrielli GB, Marra C, Caltagirone C, et al. Memory is Not Enough: The Neurobiological Substrates of Dynamic Cognitive Reserve. J Alzheimer’s Dis 2017; 58(1): 171-84. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-170086
Maiovis P, Ioannidis P, Gerasimou G, Gotzamani- Psarrakou A, Karacostas D. Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis in Frontotemporal Dementia: Evidence from a Brain SPECT Study in a Series of Greek Frontotemporal Dementia Patients. NDD 2018; 18(2-3): 69-73. https://doi.org/10.1159/000486621
Stern Y, Arenaza-Urquijo EM, Bartrés-Faz D, Belleville S, Cantilon M, Chetelat G. Reserve, Resilience and Protective Factors PIA Empirical Definitions and Conceptual Frameworks Workgroup. Whitepaper: defining and investigating cognitive reserve, brain reserve, and brain maintenance [published online September 14, 2018]. Alzheimers Dement 2018; 16(9): 1305-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2018.07.219
Perneczky R, Kempermann G, Korczyn AD, Matthews FE, Ikram MA, Scarmeas N, et al. Translational research on reserve against neurodegenerative disease: consensus report of the International Conference on Cognitive Reserve in the Dementias and the Alzheimer’s Association Reserve, Resilience and Protective Factors Professional Interest Area working groups. BMC Med 2019; 17(1): 47. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1283-z
Arenaza-Urquijo EM, Przybelski SA, Lesnick TL, Graff-Radford J, Machulda MM, Knopman DS, et al. The metabolic brain signature of cognitive resilience in the 80+: beyond Alzheimer pathologies. Brain 2019; 142(4): 1134-47. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awz037
Kajitani S, Sakata K, Mckenzie C. Occupation, retirement and cognitive functioning. Ageing Soc 2017; 37(8): 1568-96. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X16000465
Grotz C, Meillon C, Amieva H, Stern Y, Dartigues J-F, Adam S, et al. Why is later age at retirement beneficial for cognition? Results from a French population-based study. J Nutr Health Aging 2016; 20(5): 514-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-015-0599-4
Hill AB. The environment and disease: association or causation? Sage Publications 1965. https://doi.org/10.1177/003591576505800503
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
